Excerpts from the chapters of part FOUR

Select from the following:

Chapter 12: The ABCs of College Success
Chapter 13: Study Habits and Techniques
Chapter 14: Self-esteem
Chapter 15: Assertiveness

Chapter 12

The ABCs of College Success

I dwell in possibilities —

Emily Dickinson (1830-1886) American poet

To be a successful college student means becoming a self-motivated learner, which basically requires managing our ABCs in such a way that we direct ourselves toward rather than away from academics.

As learners, we listen, we question, we communicate. We try to remember, understand, integrate, and apply knowledge. Not only do we become increasingly competent in our particular discipline, we also broaden our thinking about ourselves and the world around us. This requires us to reason critically, read carefully, and write coherently. And as if all this were not enough, we need to think and act with passion.

Some students move from high school to college and discover rather quickly that they have moved from a teaching to a learning environment (Walter & Siebert, 1993), where the responsibility to learn is placed on them. Others find their lives to be comparable to the juggler’s act as they attempt to balance school work, family, and a job.

But whether coming directly from high school or returning to school as an adult, the student who practices academic self-management will come to experience college as a time of discovery, not drudgery. When this happens, all kinds of new and exciting possibilities begin to emerge.

A task fundamental to success in college is meeting the challenge of thinking, feeling, and acting like a successful student. Being smart is recognizing (C) our strengths as well as our weaknesses and feeling comfortable (A) enough with ourselves to take the steps (B) necessary to reach our full academic potential.

Although extenuating circumstances sometimes influence academic performance, most students who do well academically do so because they are positively motivated to learn. And, since our motivation toward learning is something we have control over, we have control over the quality of our education.

COGNITION AND MOTIVATION FOR LEARNING

We all have beliefs (C) about our capabilities as learners and some ideas about the capabilities of other students. Consider how the following beliefs, which support negative motivation (see Chapter 7), might influence a student’s academic performance:

These beliefs about learning are expressed indirectly in everyday language or by thoughts such as:

Such beliefs will motivate students away from a particular course or assignment. They also reflect a preconceived notion that academic work should never be difficult or inconvenient.

The more beliefs we have like these, the more negatively motivated we will be with respect to academics. Students who do not believe they have what it takes to learn or believe they have little to gain from learning will not give academic tasks a high priority.

Beliefs about what it means to be a student are a powerful influence on academic performance. Consider how the following beliefs, which support positive motivation (see Chapter 7), might influence a student’s academic performance.

These beliefs about learning are expressed indirectly in everyday language or in thoughts such as:

A potent force in becoming a successful student is believing it is possible to become one. To become self-motivated learners, we work at thinking in positive terms about our role as students and the tasks associated with learning.

What separates the positively motivated student from others is the belief that the hard work (e.g. rewriting papers, hours in the library, following a study schedule, etc.) is worth the effort, even in the face of disappointments.

Much has already been said in Chapter 5 about how distortions in thinking can interfere with positive motivation in general. The same principles apply to motivation for academics. If we are not motivated toward learning, but would like to be, we need to avoid thinking about academics in distorted terms. Cognitive distortions about class work, tests, professors, and studying can interfere with academic accomplishment.

The following examples illustrate how distorted thinking can subvert positive motivation, strengthen negative motivation, and generate negative affect.

Filtering “Requiring business majors to take a fine arts course is a total waste of time and money. The books cost a fortune, the slide shows are boring, the teachers are awful, and I’ll never use that cubism stuff on the job. It’s annoying that I can’t take more business courses instead.”

Polarized Thinking “I can tell by the end of the first class whether a course is going to be great or a real bummer. And just as I predicted, this one so far has been a drag.”

Overgeneralization “Every time I try to participate in class I put my foot in my mouth. After today’s ‘screw up,’ I’ll keep my mouth shut, even if it costs me a participation grade.”

Mind Reading “I think my strong feminist views are putting a lot of people off, so I better tone them down before I find myself sitting alone in the cafeteria.”

Catastrophizing “I’m really scared that if I have to take Professor Wilson’s class, I’ll fail, be on probation, and eventually flunk out. There goes my career in TV news.”

Blaming “It ticks me off that I can’t pick the professors I want, especially since I’m paying all this money. No wonder I’m not learning anything.”

Global Labeling “I’m such a ‘stupe’ when it comes to math; I’d even fail a ‘math for dummies’ course. No wonder I get nervous around numbers.”

Personalization “A lot of the examples this teacher uses are intended to insult minorities like me. Oh, she would deny it, but I can tell. That’s why I’m turned off by her lectures.”

Being Right “These rap sessions are a waste of time. Once I’ve reached a conclusion, I’m not going to change my mind; let’s move on before I get mad.”

Emotional Reasoning “If it doesn’t feel right to me, there is no way I’m going to try his suggestion. I don’t care if he has a Ph.D. in counseling.”







Chapter 13

Study Habits and Techniques

‘Tis education forms the common mind:
Just as the twig is bent, the tree’s inclined.

Alexander Pope (1688-1744) British poet

Studying effectively is more than mere recall of discrete facts; it involves an understanding, integration, and application of knowledge. It also requires that we organize our time, resources, and environment.

Learning material thoroughly enough to be recalled is a process that cannot be rushed. Cramming for tests creates stress and confusion, which prevents us from processing information accurately and achieving the grade of which we are capable.

Studies on learning and memory indicate that students who study systematically in short, well-spaced sessions learn more in less time than students who study “helter skelter” for long periods of time only before exams. Taking a fifteen-minute break with some small reward after each hour of studying works well for many students.

Some of us mistakenly associate studying for hours, propped up in bed with highlighter in hand, as a good study method. These behaviors need to change if we want study time to be time well spent. Behaviors that reflect more effective study habits include:

STUDY TECHNIQUES

Note Taking
Taking notes and reviewing them regularly increases attention, interest, and class participation. Students who take notes usually learn more from lectures and discussions, and they have material to study for exams.

Whether we are more comfortable taking notes in an outline or topic format, the following steps adapted from the Cornell Note-taking System will be useful.

Preparation

Use a separate notebook for each class.

Bring it to class.

Before Class

Review notes from the previous class.

In Class

Date all class notes.

Draw a straight vertical line from the top to bottom of the page approximately three inches from the left-hand side.

Reserve the left-hand side for key words and study questions.

Use the right-hand side of the notebook page for detailed notes.

Leave the backside of all notebook pages blank for notes from other sources (readings, quizzes, etc.).

Use abbreviations when taking notes.

Note key words and summary statements during a lecture.

Copy anything the instructor writes on the board.

Jot down the name and author of books, articles, or page numbers cited in class for future research.

After Class

Review, rewrite, and organize notes within one day after class.

Make up study questions from class notes and write them on the left-hand side of the notebook page next to the notes that will help answer the question.

Compare notes with other students in the class. Write down questions to ask the professor if anything is confusing or unclear.

Make a duplicate copy of your notes in case you lose them.

Before a Test

Cover up the right-hand side of notebook pages and try to answer all study questions without looking at notes.

On the preceding page is an example of a notetaking method where the main ideas and related material presented in class are organized into an outline.

When course material is not easily organized into an outline form, notes can be arranged by topic or theme. If the lecture or discussion diverts from the main topic while we are taking notes, drop down a quarter of a page and continue to take notes under a new heading such as “miscellaneous comments.” (Just because a discussion or lecture digresses does not mean that the material is unimportant.) Once the discussion reverts to the main point, return to the blank section to record notes.

Study questions that correspond to each topic or theme can easily be generated after class.







Chapter 14

Self-esteem

Remember, no one can make
you feel inferior without your
consent.

Eleanor Roosevelt (1884-1962)
American diplomat,
humanitarian

For some people, self-esteem connotes an air of conceit; for others, it is the key to success. Still others will argue that self-esteem only helps people feel good when they are doing poorly.

For the sake of clarity, it needs to be stated that self-esteem is not exaggerated self-praise, does not guarantee success, nor is it feeling comfortable when performance is poor.

The once common meaning of the word esteem — to evaluate or estimate — gives us an appropriate starting point. Self-esteem will be defined as our overall evaluation of our worth as individuals. To esteem oneself is to evaluate oneself.

ABCs OF SELF-ESTEEM

We all have opinions about our physical, mental, and social abilities and as these opinions change or stabilize over time, so does our self-esteem.

Low self-esteem is a negative evaluation of oneself that frequently results from cognitive distortions and dysfunctional beliefs.

High self-esteem is a positive evaluation of oneself that frequently results from accurate, specific, functional, and balanced thoughts.

Self-esteem is primarily a cognitive process of self-evaluation, but affect and behavior also significantly influence it. In this chapter we will see that by managing affect, behavior, and cognition, we evaluate ourselves more realistically, and as a result, increase the opportunities to enhance our self-esteem.

Affect and Self-esteem
As discussed in earlier chapters, our thoughts can influence our feelings and our feelings can have a direct and immediate impact on our thinking. If we think about ourselves while we are feeling bad, we are more likely to evaluate ourselves negatively; if we think about ourselves while we are feeling good, we are more likely to evaluate ourselves positively.

When we are feeling down, it is not easy to think positively about anything, including ourselves. Feelings of sadness, depression, and despair not only help to filter out pleasant thoughts, but also may trigger counterproductive thoughts about our worth and value as individuals. The same is true of negative sensations such as tension and fatigue.

Inappropriate negative emotions and sensations make us more vulnerable to distorted thoughts and dysfunctional beliefs. They have a sneaky way of making distortions in thinking believable, and therefore, we are more likely to act upon them.

In the following example, a student preparing for exams is so anxious that it triggers a series of negative self-evaluations.

Rachel has finals this week and has been cramming for days. She is feeling so pressured and stressed from studying constantly that she is about ready to give up. She begins to think that it will be an impossible task to get through the material for computer science. Worrying about the work she has yet to do, she says to herself, “I just can’t handle this stress. I’m going to fail anyway so why bother putting myself through all this.” The more upset she becomes, the more thoughts about failing and dropping out of school begin to preoccupy her mind.

During exam week, many students feel scared and may evaluate this feeling as an indication of incompetence. Thinking negatively when feeling stressed is commonplace, but accepting an erroneous perception such as “I can’t do this” as fact only intensifies the affect and may lead us to act as if it were true.

Some negative emotions trigger distorted self-evaluations almost instantaneously, while others can have this effect several hours, weeks, or years later. Anger is an emotion that may trigger a low opinion of ourselves long after the reasons for the anger have been forgotten.

Since most of us do not evaluate ourselves positively after losing control, our self-esteem can suffer when we later recall an angry outburst. Emotional trauma experienced years ago can have a lasting impact on our self-esteem if we still associate the emotion with a lack of ability or worth. Past fears or anxieties are often mistakenly used as a basis for evaluating ourselves in the present.

Perhaps we believe that we cannot give a class presentation because we judge the experience of once having had stage fright as proof of our inadequacy as a public speaker. When “I can’t do it” is based on a feeling from the past, we give lasting credibility to a temporal emotion, and it can have a prolonged negative impact on our self-evaluation.

Positive feelings have the opposite effect. Thoughts such as “I’m pretty good at this!” are much easier to come by when we are happy and feeling good. Being excited and “turned on” can lead us to think more positively about ourselves than when we are emotionless.

Because our affective state influences our self-esteem, it is wise to refrain from evaluating ourselves when we are experiencing extreme emotion, whether positive or negative. We need to be particularly cautious not to judge ourselves harshly when upset.







Chapter 15

Assertiveness

Democracy arises out of the
notion that those who are equal
in any respect are equal in all
respects.

Aristotle (384-322)
Greek philosopher

With improved self-esteem, it is easier to be forthright in expressing our affect, both positive and negative, and in relating meaningfully to others. But, to do so requires learning to be assertive, which is another aspect of self-management discussed in this chapter.

ASSERTIVENESS IN PRINCIPLE AND PRACTICE

Assertiveness is a way of life that influences our interactions with others and our approach to dealing with the problems and injustices we perceive. It is an outward display of inward security and self-confidence, and a way of relating to others that reflects a belief in human rights.

From a philosophical perspective, assertive people could be said to embody and uphold the principles upon which a democracy is founded, namely principles of equality.

From a purely practical point of view, assertiveness is a skill that enables us to prevent and resolve problems that are interfering with the achievement of our goals. When motivated to study and manage our time efficiently, we quickly become aware of the impact other people can have on us.

Friends, family, and classmates can unintentionally interfere with our best efforts to follow a study or time schedule, and we learn that we need to influence their behavior in order to direct our own. An effective way to solve these and related problems is to be assertive.

The situations in which assertiveness is useful are not limited to time management and study skills — they are many and varied.

How many times have we been passive, keeping ideas to ourselves when our needs or the needs of others would have been better served had we spoken up? We may have missed a chance to make a new friend for fear of rejection.

Perhaps we failed to address a problem with a faculty member until it reached crisis proportions. Or, we may have been aggressive, flying off the handle and hurting someone we care about. Maybe we have gotten into fights because we did not know how to deal effectively with conflict. Each of these scenarios describes a situation in which assertiveness would have been useful.

When we fail to act assertively, we usually pay a price. This price can have severe personal and societal implications. An understanding of assertiveness, passivity, and aggression will help us better appreciate the implications of making a personal choice among these options.

The ABCs of Assertiveness
Assertiveness is commonly defined as the ability to have our needs met and our rights respected without infringing upon the rights of others. It is traditionally discussed in the literature as an effective approach to interacting with others (Alberti & Emmons, 1978).

The ABC characteristics of assertiveness can be outlined as follows:

Affect

Feeling relatively comfortable when stating needs, rights, and ideas.

Behavior

Speaking up for oneself and others when necessary in clear and nonthreatening terms. Using assertive communication (I messages and active listening) in confrontational situations and in response to aggressive attacks from others.

Cognition

Believing that one’s own needs and ideas are as important as those of others, and that the rights of oneself and others are to be respected.

People who interact with others assertively are apt to become involved in activities and relationships that foster personal and professional growth. They are also likely to establish relationships that are based on a belief in the dignity of the individual.

The ABCs of Passivity
We are being passive when we want our needs to be met, but fail to make them known, or when our rights or those of others are violated, but we do nothing.

People who act passively often believe that their needs, rights, or ideas are not important enough to be voiced or they feel too nervous or fearful to express themselves. Rather than doing something about a problem they want resolved, they may hope that someone else will take care of it or that the problem will simply go away.

Sometimes we may act in a passive manner because we think other people should be able to read our minds and know what we want without our telling them. If they do not respond accordingly, we may feel upset. Instead of speaking directly to the person with whom we are having difficulty, we may complain to someone else or let the problem go unresolved.

Both courses of action are ineffective. In using a passive approach, we place our own needs second to those of others, and in doing so, show a lack of respect for ourselves.

The ABC characteristics of passivity can be outlined as follows:

Affect

Feeling nervous or anxious when expressing needs, rights, or ideas, particularly if there is any possibility of conflict or rejection.

Behavior

Failing to speak up or take decisive action to see that one’s own needs and rights are met, and that the rights of others are respected. Avoiding eye contact and using an apologetic tone or a very low voice when expressing ideas to others. Cognition

Believing that one’s own needs, rights, or ideas are less important than those of others.

People who tend to be passive miss many academic and personal opportunities for growth because they do not focus on themselves or they allow others to take advantage of them. They may have difficulty addressing the source of a problem, or if they do confront a problem directly, may apologize needlessly for their actions.

The ABCs of Aggression
We are aggressive when we infringe upon the rights of someone else to meet our own needs. Aggression denies the rights of others in favor of our own desires and is often characterized by the use of intimidation or physical force.

Aggression is also typified by a confrontational communication style. Name calling (global labels) and accusatory you messages are typical of this style.

You messages place blame on others: “You always leave all your junk around the room. You are such a slob! If you have to smoke, you could at least clean the ashtrays!” By opening the dialogue with the pronoun “you,” the speaker makes an accusation that can immediately put the other person on the defensive.

This communication style may be effective in gaining the short-term objective, but it frequently results in a long-term loss because in time, other people will simply ignore or avoid the aggressor.

The ABC characteristics of aggression can be outlined as follows:

Affect

Feeling very angry or frustrated when things do not go one’s own way.

Behavior

Attacking others verbally or physically. Use of you messages or derogatory labels.

Cognition

Believing that one’s own needs, wishes, and rights are more important than those of others.

People who tend to be aggressive may not succeed academically or personally because in focusing so much on themselves, they alienate those who could be of help. They often have difficulty accepting their complicity in a problem and become overly defensive when trying to solve it.