Excerpts from the chapters of part THREE

Select from the following:

Chapter 9: Methods for Changing Affect
Chapter 10: Methods for Changing Behavior
Chapter 11: Methods for Changing Cognition

Chapter 9

Methods for Changing Affect

Chapter 2 pointed out that affect consists of emotions and sensations and that most emotional responses involve some physical sensations. The methods for changing affect introduced in this chapter can help us manage emotions and sensations that present a problem for us or be used to improve the overall quality of our lives.

CHANGING EMOTIONS BY USING THE DIE MODEL

Whereas Part One of the DIE Model is used to identify thoughts that may be triggering emotional upset, Parts Two and Three of the DIE Model (adapted from Ellis, 1969) are used to manage these negative emotions.

The example below shows how the DIE Model can be applied to address the case study problem introduced in Chapter 6.

Part One: Data, Interpretation, and Emotional Response

Part One of the DIE Model is used to identify the thoughts and emotions involved.

Data (facts)

What are the objective facts? Write down what happened. Focus on 4 “Ws” — who, what, where, when.

Example:

Last night, I saw my girlfriend with another man in the mall.

Interpretation (thoughts or beliefs)

What are the subjective thoughts or beliefs about the data? Be as thorough as possible in describing the thoughts and beliefs.

Example:

She is cheating on me. It’s all over between us. It’s not fair.

Emotional Response (affect)

What emotions result from this interpretation?

Example:

Anger, anxiety, depression.

Part Two: Disputation, Exchange, and Practice

Part Two of the DIE Model illustrates how to change a negative emotional response by changing the thinking that is causing it.

Disputation

We dispute the distorted thoughts or the dysfunctional beliefs that are part of our interpretation by identifying and challenging them. Here’s how to do it:

1.
Select the distorted thoughts or dysfunctional beliefs to be disputed. Write them down. It will be helpful to refer to the distorted thoughts and dysfunctional beliefs described in Chapter 5 and compare them with the thoughts selected.

Example:

Personalization: She’s with another guy; therefore, she must be cheating on me.

Catastrophizing: It’s all over between us.

Fairness: It’s not fair that she is with someone else.

2.
How is this thought or belief wrong, false, or misleading? Is it specific, accurate, nonjudgmental? Is it balanced? What evidence is there that it is false? Is there any evidence that it is true? How is it dysfunctional (counterproductive)?

Example:

I did see her with that guy (specific), but I could be wrong about the cheating (inaccurate) and I jumped to a conclusion without getting the facts (judgmental) and without hearing her side (unbalanced). There is no evidence that she’s cheating and it isn’t helping my mood to think that she is (dysfunctional).

Exchange and Practice

We exchange distorted thoughts and dysfunctional beliefs for rational thoughts by making them specific, accurate, nonjudgmental, and balanced.

Example:

I have no evidence that she’s involved with this guy. For all I know, it could be a friend or a relative. Before I go jumping to conclusions, I’ll mention that I saw her and ask her whom she was with. It may have nothing to do with me. She has always been honest in the past.

We practice the exchanged thoughts and beliefs by persistently rehearsing them in our minds (particularly when the data are present).

Only by persistently practicing disputation and exchange will a logical thought or functional belief replace the negative interpretation and change the negative emotion.

With practice, these cognitive processes become automatic and negative emotions become less frequent. As one student put it: “This model was a little hard to pick up at first, but like anything else it takes practice.”

Part Three: Coping and Reframing

Part Three of the DIE Model teaches us how to deal with the negative aspects of reality through coping and reframing.

Identifying and changing distortions and dysfunctional beliefs enable us to counter subjective thoughts that have no basis in fact or are harmful in some way. However, not all negative interpretations are false, and therefore, all do not necessarily result from cognitive distortions. After logically assessing a situation, we may find our negative interpretation is correct. Coping and reframing will help in dealing with this negative reality.

Coping

Coping is focusing on our personal resources and using them to adapt to a negative situation. It is particularly beneficial when dealing with a situation that we cannot change or one that we cannot change in the near future. We determine the worst thing that could happen and decide how to adjust to it.

Examples:

She is seeing another guy! What could be worse? She may want to break up with me and never see me again. I’ll talk with her about it calmly and assertively. Then we’ll have to decide if our relationship is finished or if we’ll continue to see each other.

I have handled worse situations in my life and survived them. I’ve had relationships in the past that have gone sour and I’ve gotten over them. As Elton John said, “I’m Still Standing.”

Reframing

Reframing is focusing on the positive aspects of negative data. We practice reframing by identifying some good things that could result from a negative reality with which we are faced.

Examples:

If she wants to go out with someone else, that means I’m free to do the same. I might even meet someone I like better.

This will give me a chance to do some of the things I’ve been putting off because of all the time I spent with her. Better to have found out about this now before I invested too much in the relationship.

The coping thought process reduces a negative emotional response by strengthening the belief that we can handle a situation without excessive cost to ourselves. By reframing, we think about how we can benefit from the experience. In time, these thoughts can produce positive feelings that will motivate us to act toward the situation in a manner consistent with our goals.

As we attempt to cope and reframe, distorted thinking or dysfunctional beliefs can interfere with the process. For example, filtering may block our recall of past successful coping strategies or lead us to see reframing as “just kidding ourselves.” We would then need to dispute these distortions, rather than allow them to undermine our efforts to manage our feelings.

Applying the DIE Model to change the negative thinking and emotions will go a long way in helping us succeed. Some college students have offered these reasons for learning the model:

The model helped me to control my emotions when things seemed to be going badly. I found myself using it a few times when dealing with a bad grade, a disagreement with a roommate, or when something negative occurred. It helped me to get hold of my negative thoughts, feelings, and behaviors and take control of them before they got out of hand.

I use the model in situations that I can’t handle. It helps me break down a situation and deal with it in a healthy way.

One time I got into a fight with my girlfriend. I was thinking about not calling her back. Then I stopped and asked myself if that would really accomplish anything. I realized it would just make matters worse and I decided to call and settle everything for the better. I did all this, in a sense, by using the model in my mind.

I use the model to look at motivational problems and to correct them.

This model helped me deal with distorted thoughts in a more sensible way. For example, just recently I found myself being “screwed over” or at least that’s how I saw it. I applied this model to the problem and in the long run it helped me solve it.

It helps me change distorted thoughts into positive, confident thoughts.

Chapter 10

Methods for Changing Behavior

Many changes in behavior involve first changing affect and cognition. While this approach is often successful, there are more direct ways to address behavioral change. Some of these are discussed in this chapter.

BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

The conditions present before a behavior occurs (or fails to occur) and the conditions that follow it often influence the behavior according to the principles of operant conditioning (Whaley & Malott, 1997). The conditions occurring prior to behavior are called antecedents; the conditions that follow it are called consequences.

Whether the intent is to increase desirable behaviors or decrease undesirable ones, by changing the antecedents and consequences of a particular behavior, we can change that behavior by following a series of steps known as behavior modification (Watson & Tharp, 1996). Behavior modification is making use of the antecedents and consequences of a behavior to change it. Two forms of this approach are described in the following.

Nehavior Modification Steps: Long Form

2.
Record the conditions that are present before (antecedents) and after (consequences) the behavior occurs. To discover antecedents, keep a record of the 4Ws:

• Who is present?
• When does the behavior occur?
• Where does the behavior occur?
• What is happening when the behavior occurs?

To discover consequences, keep a record of what happens after the behavior occurs. Note anything that is reinforcing the behavior.

Example:

When I get a “buzz,” I talk a lot and easily. Friends pay attention to me. I feel relaxed and comfortable. I laugh and joke around. I get drunk.

Record the frequency and duration of the behavior.

Example: I get drunk at least one night every weekend. I’m drunk from 11 p.m. until I fall asleep at 2 or 3 a.m.

3.
Analyze the data collected in Step 2 to see if there is a pattern to the behavior. This is known as a functional analysis of the behavior in terms of antecedents and consequences.

Example:

An analysis of data collected on my drinking reveals that I drink most often with two specific people (Ray and Janet) on Friday night, in the local pub, when discussing sports and school. (Note the 4Ws.) The consequences of drinking are that during the early part of the night I get a “buzz,” am relaxed, can talk easily, and have an audience. Later on, I get drunk and slur my words.

4.
Determine what conditions (antecedents and consequences) are influencing the behavior.

Example:

I think being with friends on a Friday night in the local pub, talking about sports after a tough week in school, increases the chances that I will drink a lot. Getting a “buzz” early in the evening probably leads to more drinking, getting relaxed, talking a lot, and eventually getting drunk.

5.
Decide what antecedents and consequences to alter in order to change the behavior.

Example of changing antecedents: I plan to go out with friends other than my “drinking buddies” on Friday night; or I will go to the movies with Ray and Janet on Friday night; or I will go to the local pub on Friday night with Ray and Janet, but I will only bring enough money for two or three beers and after about an hour, we will go to the movies.

Example of changing consequences:

I will ask my friends to tell me if I am drinking too much, talking too much, or slurring my words. I will slow the pace of my drinking to one beer an hour, and ask the bartender to “cut me off” early if I am drinking too fast.

6. Provide systematic rewards for any improvement as a result of changing antecedents or consequences.
Example:

After decreasing the number of times I get drunk, I will use the drinking money saved to buy new jeans or tickets to a concert.

7.
Provide systematic penalties whenever the behavior occurs.

Examples:

After each night I get drunk, I won't allow myself to party for one week.
Having given my roommate $20 to hold, I’ll tell him to spend it if I get drunk.

8.
Observe how much the behavior has changed by keeping a record.

9.
Modify the plan if there is no improvement after two weeks. This might include arranging new types of antecedents to make the desired behavior more probable, or perhaps altering the consequences. Providing different or stronger payoffs for improvement or penalties for “failure” might work.

While the above example focuses on decreasing an undesirable behavior, the same principles apply to increasing a desirable behavior. For example, to increase studying behavior, it would be helpful to provide appropriate antecedents (perhaps a study group, in the library, with research materials during early evening) and consequences (perhaps a TV show, social event, or snack made contingent on the behavior).

Chapter 11

Methods for Changing Cognition

While some methods for changing thinking have already been suggested in previous chapters, additional ones are provided in this chapter.

THOUGHT STOPPING

We can change these cognitions on the spot before they take their toll on our feelings and behaviors by using the technique of thought stopping.

Thought stopping is a method generally used for curtailing negative thinking, but it can be used to eliminate any thought that we find distracting. It works by interrupting and stopping the thought forcefully and dramatically. Two different methods of thought stopping are outlined here.

Thought Stopping: The On-the-spot Method

The procedure is quite simple. As soon as an inappropriate negative thought comes to mind, yell “Stop!” silently to yourself, relax for a few seconds, and switch to an appropriate thought.

If done properly, the disruptive thought will disappear, at least momentarily. If the negative thought is allowed to continue for long, it will gain in strength and intensity, and become more difficult to shut down. By yelling “Stop!” to yourself and substituting a more functional thought as soon as the negative thought comes to mind, you are more apt to stop it before it takes hold of you mentally and physically. If you have already worked yourself up into a full-blown state of panic, the method will take much longer to be effective.

The following example illustrates on-the-spot thought stopping:

As Barbara begins her final exam in English, she thinks, “I just have to do well on this test to keep my ‘B’ average.” As Barbara scans the first essay question on Rappaccini’s Daughter, she realizes that she only vaguely remembers reading it. All that she can remember is that it is a short story by Nathaniel Hawthorne. She begins to think: “I cannot possibly answer this question and it is worth 25 points!” Thoughts of doing poorly on the exam begin to race through her mind. Barbara feels herself starting to panic.

Suddenly, she says to herself in an abrupt manner: “Barbara, stop it! Cut out the nonsense and answer the question!” She calms down and relaxes for a moment. As she begins to refocus on the question, the thought creeps in: “I can’t bluff on this one.” Again, she shouts to herself: “Stop it already; just answer the question as best you can.”

She takes a deep breath, puts her pen to the paper, and begins to outline what she can recall from the story, thinking to herself, “That’s right, the daughter’s name was Beatrice...”

Barbara used thought stopping to keep negative thoughts out of her mind long enough to allow positive ones to take over and avoid panic. By interrupting the unwanted thoughts each time they occurred, she weakened the thoughts that were preventing her from recalling the story.

Then, by thinking of something more appropriate to the task at hand, the negative thoughts gradually lost ground and the specifics of the story came to mind. Relaxing also aided the process.

This technique is effective only when the negative thought is stopped each time it occurs, and then replaced by a more positive or appropriate thought, as Barbara did in the example by saying, “Just answer the question.” Of course, if she had never read Rappaccini’s Daughter, thought stopping would not have helped much. It was effective here because the panicky feeling was preventing her from thinking clearly.

A college athlete explains how he uses this method:

Out of all of the ABC methods, the one I use most is thought stopping. Whenever I am taking a test or even playing a basketball game, I use this approach so as not to let my thoughts interfere with my work.

Say that I was on the verge of making an important basket for my team, my mind would start to tell me that I am about to miss the shot so don’t even bother trying for it. This is where thought stopping comes into play. I would shout in my mind “I can make that shot.” Then I will take the shot, and usually make it, if I have good form.

While thought stopping is used primarily for negative thoughts, at times pleasant thoughts or images prevent us from doing something we planned. “I would like to have a beer” or “I would like to quit studying and go skiing” could be considered rather pleasant thoughts. However, if we had planned to drink less and study more, these thoughts could lead us away from our goal. In such a situation instead of interrupting a negative thought, we would interrupt the pleasant thought and refocus attention on a thought that relates to our goal.